Here's more info on pesticides, particularly fumigants, which also cause
twitching...
Wendy
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Forwarded message:
From:   [log in to unmask] (Tebay, Wendy)
To:     [log in to unmask] (athome)
Date: 95-06-27 18:38:47 EDT
 
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Acrolein
 
Acrolein (acrylaldehyde) is an extremely irritating gas, used as a
fumigant, aquatic herbicide, and "tear gas." The vapor causes lacrimation
and upper respiratory tract irritation, which may lead to laryngeal edema,
bronchospasm, and delayed pulmonary edema. The consequences of ingestion
are essentially the same as those which follow formaldehyde. Contact with
the skin may cause blistering.
 
 
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Acrylonitrile
 
Acrylonitrile is biotransformed in the body to hydrogen cyanide. Toxicity
and mechanisms of poisoning are essentially the same as have been described
for cyanide, except that acrylonitrile is irritating to the eyes and upper
respiratory tract.
 
 
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Carbon Disulfide
 
Carbon disulfide vapor is only moderately irritating to upper respiratory
membranes, but it has an offensive "rotten cabbage" odor. Acute toxicity is
due chiefly to effects on the central nervous system. Inhalation of high
concentrations for short periods has caused headache, dizziness, nausea,
hallucinations, delirium, progressive paralysis, and death from respiratory
failure. More prolonged exposure to lesser amounts has lead to blindness,
deafness, paresthesia, painful neuropathy, and paraly-sis. Long-term
occupational exposures have been shown to accel-erate atherosclerosis,
leading to ischemic encephalopathy, myocardiopathy, and gastrointestinal
dysfunction. Toxic damage to the liver and kidneys may result in severe
functional deficits of these organs.
 
 
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Carbon Tetrachloride
 
Carbon tetrachloride is less toxic than chloroform as a central nervous
system depressant, but is much more severely hepatotoxic, particularly
following ingestion. Liver cell damage is apparent-ly due to a free radical
generated in the process of initial dechlorination. Kidney injury also
occurs; sometimes this is exaggerated by jaundice. Cardiac arrhythmias,
progressing to fibrillation, may follow inhalation of high concentrations
of carbon tetrachloride or ingestion of the liquid.
 
 
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Chloroform
 
Chloroform has an agreeable sweet odor and is only slightly irritating to
the respiratory tract. It is a powerful central nervous system depressant
(in fact, an anesthetic). Inhalation of toxic concentrations in air leads
to dizziness, loss of sensation and motor power, and then unconsciousness.
Inhalation of large amounts causes cardiac arrhythmias, sometimes
progress-ing to ventricular fibrillation. Large absorbed doses damage the
functional cells of the liver and kidney. Ingestion is more likely to cause
serious liver and kidney injury than is inhala-tion of the vapor.
 
 
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Chloropicrin
 
Chloropicrin is severely irritating to the upper respiratory tract, eyes,
and skin. Inhalation of an irritant concentration sometimes leads to
vomiting. Ingestion could be expected to cause a corrosive gastroenteritis.
 
 
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Commercial Products
 
Hydrocarbon: naphthalene (naphthene)
 
Halocarbons: methylene chloride, methyl bromide (bromomethane, Brom-O-Gas,
Brom-O-Sol, Meth-O-Gas, Terr-O-Gas, Brom-O-Gaz, Celfume, Kayafume, MeBr),
chloroform (trichloromethane), carbon tetrachloride, chloropicrin
(nitrochloroform, Chlor-O-Pic, Aquinite, Dojyopicrin, Dolochlor, Larvacide,
Pic-Chlor, Tri-Clor), ethylene dichloride (dichloroethane, EDC), ethylene
dibromide (dibromoethane, Bromofume, Celmide, E-D-Bee, EDB, Kopfume,
Nephis), dichloropropene (Telone II Soil Fumigant, D-D92), dichloropropene
plus dichloropropane (D-D), dibromochloropropane (Nemafume, Nemanax,
Nemaset, DBCP, Nematocide), paradichlorobenzene (PDB, Paracide).
 
Oxides and Aldehydes: ethylene oxide (epoxyethane, ETO, oxirane), propylene
oxide, formaldehyde (formalin is a 40% aqueous solution), paraformaldehyde,
acrolein (propenal, acryladehyde, Aqualin).
 
Sulfur Compounds: sulfur dioxide, sulfuryl fluoride (Vikane), carbon
disulfide.
 
Phosphorus Compounds: phosphine (liberated from aluminum phosphide:
phostoxin, AIP, Fumitoxin).
 
Nitrogen Compounds: hydrogen cyanide (hydrocyanic acid, prussic acid,
Cyclon), acrylonitrile (Acritet, Carbacryl, Acrylofume - all mixtures with
carbon tetrachloride).
 
Packaging and formulation of fumigants is complex. Those which are gases at
room temperature (methyl bromide, ethylene oxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
cyanide, sulfuryl fluoride) are provided in compressed gas cylinders.
Liquids are marketed in cans or drums. Solids which sublime, such as
naphthalene and paradichlorobenzene, must be packaged so as to prevent
signifi-cant contact with air before they are used.
 
Mixtures of fumigants have several advantages. Carbon tetrachlo-ride
reduces the explosiveness of carbon disulfide and acryloni-trile.
Chloropicrin, having a strong odor and irritant effect, is often added as a
"warning agent" to other liquid fumigants.
 
Liquid halocarbons and carbon disulfide evaporate into the air while
naphthalene and paradichlorobenzene sublime. Paraformaldehyde slowly
depolymerizes to formaldehyde. Aluminum phosphide slowly reacts with water
vapor in the air to liberate phosphine, an extremely toxic gas.
 
Fumigants have remarkable capacities for diffusion (a property essential to
their function). Some readily penetrate rubber and neoprene personal
protective gear, as well as human skin. They are rapidly absorbed across
the pulmonary membrane, gut, and skin. Special adsorbents are required in
respiratory canisters to protect exposed workers from airborne fumigant
gases. Even these may not provide complete protection when air
concentrations of fumigants are high.
 
 
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Dibromochloropropane
 
Dibromochloropropane is irritating to skin, eyes, and the respi-ratory
tract. Eye damage has resulted from repeated exposure to the vapors. When
absorbed, it causes headache, nausea, vomiting, ataxia, and slurred speech.
Liver and kidney damage are promi-nent features of acute poisoning. Chronic
exposure to relatively low concentrations has led to permanent sterility of
workers in a manufacturing plant, by causing diffuse necrosis of
seminiferous tubule cells. Because it is much less odiferous than ethylene
dibromide, exposure of workers to toxic concentrations of DBCP is more
likely.
 
 
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Dichloropropene and Dichloropropane
 
Dichloropropene and dichloropropane are strongly irritating to the skin,
eyes, and respiratory tract. Bronchospasm may result from inhalation of
high concentrations. Liver, kidney, and cardiac toxicity is probably
similar to that produced by carbon tetrachloride.
 
 
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Ethylene Dibromide
 
Ethylene dibromide (correctly, dibromoethane) is a severe irri-tant to
skin, eyes, and respiratory tract. The liquid causes blistering and erosion
of skin, and is corrosive to the eyes. Once absorbed, it may cause
pulmonary edema and central nervous system depression. Long-term exposure
may have some damaging effect on testicular tissue. Persons poisoned by
ingestion have suffered chemical gastroenteritis, liver necrosis, and renal
tubular damage. Death is usually due to respiratory or circula-tory
failure. A powerful disagreeable odor is advantageous in warning
occupationally exposed workers of the presence of this gas.
 
 
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Ethylene Dichloride
 
Ethylene dichloride (correctly, dichloroethane) is moderately irritating to
the eyes and respiratory tract. It depresses the central nervous system,
induces cardiac arrhythmias, and damages the liver and kidney, in much the
same way as carbon tetrachlo-ride. Symptoms and signs of poisoning include
headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, diarrhea, hypotension, cyanosis, and
uncon-sciousness. In addition to necrosis of liver and kidney cells, the
adrenal cortex may be destroyed, especially after poisoning by ingestion.
 
 
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Ethylene Oxide and Propylene Oxide
 
Ethylene oxide and propylene oxide are irritants to all tissues they
contact. Aqueous solutions of ethylene oxide cause blister-ing and erosion
of the affected skin. The area of the skin may thereafter be sensitized to
the fumigant. Inhalation of high concentrations is likely to cause
pulmonary edema and cardiac arrhythmias. Headache, nausea, vomiting,
weakness, and a persis-tent cough are common early manifestations of acute
poisoning. Coughing of bloody, frothy sputum is characteristic of pulmonary
edema.
 
 
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Formaldehyde
 
Airborne formaldehyde is irritating to the eyes and to membranes of the
upper respiratory tract. In some individuals, it is a potent sensitizer,
causing asthma and dermatitis. High air concentrations may cause laryngeal
edema, asthma, or tracheobron-chitis, but apparently not pulmonary edema.
Aqueous solutions in contact with the skin cause hardening and roughness,
due to superficial coagulation of the keratin layer. Ingested formalde-hyde
attacks the lining membrane of the stomach and intestine, causing necrosis
and ulceration. Absorbed formaldehyde is rapidly converted to formic acid.
The latter is partly responsi-ble for the metabolic acidosis that is
characteristic of formal-dehyde poisoning. Circulatory collapse and renal
failure may follow the devastating effects of ingested formaldehyde on the
gut, leading to death. Paraformaldehyde is a polymer which slowly releases
formaldehyde into the air. Toxicity is somewhat less than that of
formaldehyde because of the slow evolution of gas.
 
 
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Hydrogen Cyanide
 
Hydrogen cyanide gas causes poisoning by inactivating cytochrome oxidase,
the final enzyme essential to mammalian cellular respi-ration. The cells of
the brain appear to be the most vulnerable to cyanide action.
Unconsciousness and death may occur imme-diately following inhalation of a
high cyanide concentration, respiratory paralysis being the principal
mechanism. Lesser exposures cause a constriction and numbness in the
throat, stiffness of the jaw, salivation, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and
apprehension. Worsening of the poisoning is manifest as violent tonic or
clonic convulsions. Trismus and opisthotonos occur. Paralysis follows
seizure activity. Incontinence is characteristic. The skin remains pink.
Fixed, dilated pupils, bradycardia, and irregular gasping respiration (or
apnea) are typical of profound poisoning. The heart often continues to beat
after breathing has stopped. A bitter almond odor to the breath or vomitus
may be a clue to poisoning, but not all individuals are able to detect this
odor. Similar color of the retinal arteries and veins may be a useful sign
of cyanide poisoning; it is due to failure of reduction of hemoglobin as
blood perfuses poisoned tissues.
 
 
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Methyl Bromide
 
Methyl bromide is colorless and nearly odorless, but is severely irritating
to the lower respiratory tract, sometimes inducing pulmonary edema,
hemorrhage, or a confluent pneumonia. The onset of respiratory distress may
be delayed 4-12 hours after exposure. It is a central nervous system
depressant, but may also cause convulsions. Early symptoms of acute
poisoning include headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, tremor, and
ataxia. Repeated prolonged exposures in some cases have led to a
long-lasting syndrome of ataxia, incoordination, muscle weakness, and
areflex-ia. One case of recurrent myoclonic seizures has been reported
which required treatment for five years following methyl bromide exposure.
If liquid methyl bromide contacts the skin, severe burning, itching, and
blister formation occurs. Skin necrosis may be deep and extensive.
 
 
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Methylene Chloride
 
Methylene chloride is one of the less toxic halocarbons. It is absorbed by
inhalation and to a limited extent across the skin. Exposure to high
concentrations may cause central nervous system depression, manifest as
fatigue, weakness, and drowsiness. Some absorbed methylene chloride is
degraded to carbon monoxide in humans, yielding increased blood
concentrations of carboxyhemo-globin. However, concentrations are rarely
high enough to cause symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning. Ingestion has
caused death from gastrointestinal hemorrhage, severe liver damage, coma,
shock, metabolic acidosis, and renal injury. In laboratory animals,
extraordinary dosage has caused irritation, tremor, and narcosis, leading
to death.
 
 
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Naphthalene
 
Naphthalene is a solid white hydrocarbon long used in ball, flake, or cake
form as a moth repellent. It sublimes slowly. The vapor has a sharp,
pungent odor that is irritating to the eyes and upper respiratory tract.
Inhalation of high concentra-tions causes headache, dizziness, nausea, and
vomiting. Inten-sive prolonged inhalation exposure, or ingestion or dermal
exposure (from contact with heavily treated fabric) may cause hemolysis,
particularly in persons afflicted with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
deficiency. It is actually the alpha-naphthol metabolite that causes the
hemolysis. Secondary renal tubular damage may ensue from the naphthol and
from the products of hemolysis. Convulsions and coma may occur,
particularly in children. In infants, high levels of hemoglobin,
methemoglobin, and bilirubin in the plasma may lead to encephalopathy
(kernic-terus). Some individuals exhibit dermal sensitivity to
naphtha-lene.
 
 
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Nervous System
 
 
  Headache
  Behavioral Mood Distrubances
  Nervous System Depression
  Convulsions
  Muscle Twitching
  Myotonia
  Tetany, Carpopedal Spasma
  Tremor
  Incoordination
  Paralysis, Paresis, Muscle Weakness
  Paresthesia of Extremities
  Hearing Loss
 
 
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Paradichlorobenzene
 
Paradichlorobenzene is solid at room temperature, and is now widely used as
a moth repellent, air freshener, and deodorizer in homes and in public
facilities. The vapor is only mildly irri-tating to the nose and eyes.
Liver injury and tremor may occur following ingestion of large amounts.
Although accidental ingestions, especially by children, have been fairly
common, symptomatic human poisonings have been rare. Other stereoisomers of
dichlorobenzene are more toxic than the para-isomer.
 
 
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Phosphine Gas
 
Phosphine gas is only slightly irritating to the respiratory tract, but is
at least as toxic systemically as hydrogen cyanide. It is slowly released
into treated produce or storage spaces by hydrolysis of solid aluminum
phosphide (phostoxin). Mechanisms of toxicity are not well understood. The
principle manifesta-tions of poisoning are fatigue, nausea, headache,
dizziness, thirst, cough, shortness of breath, paresthesia, and jaundice.
Pulmonary edema is a common cause of death. Odor is said to resemble that
of decaying fish.
 
 
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Sulfur Dioxide
 
Sulfur dioxide is a highly irritant gas, so disagreeable that persons
inhaling it are usually warned to seek uncontaminated air as soon as
possible. However, laryngospasm and pulmonary edema have occurred
occasionally, leading to severe respiratory dis-tress and death. It is
sometimes a cause of asthma in occupa-tionally exposed persons, even when
air concentrations are low.
 
 
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Sulfuryl Fluoride
 
Sulfuryl fluoride has been used extensively for structural fumigation.
Although use experience has generally been good, some fatalities have
occurred when fumigated buildings have been prematurely reentered by
unprotected individuals. Manifestations of poisoning have been nose, eye,
and throat irritation, weak-ness, nausea, vomiting, dyspnea, cough,
restlessness, muscle twitching, and seizures. Renal injury may induce
proteinuria and azotemia.
 
 
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Toxicology and Manifestations of Poisoning
 
 
  Naphthalene
  Methylene Chloride
  Methyl Bromide
  Chloroform
  Carbon Tetrachloride
  Chloropicrin
  Ethylene Dichloride
  Ethylene Dibromide
  Dibromochlororpropane
  Dichloropropene and Dichloropropane
  Paradichlorobenzene
  Ethylene Oxide and Propylene Oxide
  Formaldehyde
  Acrolein
  Sulfur Dioxide
  Sulfuryl Fluoride
  Carbon Disulfide
  Phospine Gase
  Hydrogen Cyanide
  Acrylonitrile
 
 
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